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| Transverse flute and Recorders |
Flute
history dates back to the Middle Ages (early 1500s) when the flute was a
cylindrical piece of wood that sounded in D major. This transverse flute, known
as a fife, was used most often militaristically. During the Renaissance (1600s),
the flute continued to evolve and became more of a solo instrument than just
military accompaniment. These flutes were in different pitches based on the
vocal models (soprano, alto, tenor, bass). Each one had a two octave diatonic
range beginning on either G or D and there were six holes spaced evenly across
the instrument, so that fingers could easily reach them. While chromatic
playing was possible on this flute, it was awkward due to cross fingerings with
the open holes.
The early
Baroque flute was similar to the Renaissance flute. They both had six holes
that were spaced not according to acoustic principles, but to accommodate for
finger span. As a result, the first and second octaves of the instrument tended
to be flat and the F# required special fingerings in order to sound in tune.
Hotteterre, a flutist and flute-maker whom I will discuss more in later blogs,
decided to taper the bore in an attempt to correct the flute’s unstable pitch
during the early 1700s. The head joint remained cylindrical while the body
tapered to the foot, resulting in the instrument sounding less shrill. This was
also the first time that flute was split into multiple pieces, allowing it to
adjust to the varied tuning systems between geographic areas. The embouchure
and finger holes were made smaller, and they could now be closer together
because the tapering of the body adjusted for the pitch. Hotteterre added the
first key to the flute: the closed D# key. It was added to cover the seventh
hole which was after the E hole.
This instrument still had a two octave range, but there were a few notes that
could be forced over D3. Despite Hotteterre’s efforts, intonation continued to
pose a problem for the flute.
More chromatic keywork was added in an attempt to facilitate fingering and fix
intonation. In 1760, the G#, Bb, and F keys were added to the already existing
one-keyed flute. This removed most cross fingerings from the instrument. They
continued to add the C foot-joint by 1774. The keys were not immediately
accepted because keys at the time tended to stick and be unreliable, but it was
soon realized that they effectively extended the range (D1-G3) and technical
facility of the instrument.
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| 18th century transverse flutes |
The 18th century resulted in the eight-keyed flute known as the
“Meyer system” flute. A c2 key was added to control a hole near the
B and C# holes in 1782, and four years later, Tromlitz, another prominent
flutist and flute-maker to be discussed later, introduced the duplicate
F-natural key which covered another hole made on the far side of the instrument
that was controlled by a long lever. In the early 19th century, there
were developments the mechanism of keys that would later be transferred to
wooden flutes such as tenons and sockets, lengthened springs, and the design of
key mountings as silver posts, and developments with open keys in order to
improve intonation. At this point, the eight-keyed flute was the standard
instrument, but performers still played all models dating back to the one-keyed
flute and on to flutes that had more than eight keys. Theobald Boehm’s
innovations led towards the standardization of flutes that is nearly the same
today.
With Boehm’s model came the beginnings of the modern flute. He started a
completely new fingering system where each semitone was drilled into the
instrument at its acoustically correct position and then the mechanism was
developed to facilitate those holes. His 1831 model re-spaced the A, E, F, F#,
and G holes and keyed them. He also used double jointed ring keys so that more
than one key can be pressed at once. The 1832 used exact measurements for the
acoustic placement of the holes and incorporated open key systems for their
full venting. Nolan’s system of open key rings and horizontal rods facilitated
the mechanism, allowing fingers to be able to stay in their normal position
between D1 and B3. While much of the old fingering system was retained, there
were still necessary changes made to it that turned off seasoned performers
from buying this model, but eventually slight mechanical changes were made that
allowed the system to catch on in France and it was accepted by the Paris
Conservatoire in 1838.
Boehm’s
1847 model improved various aspects of the flute to improve its acoustics. A
cylindrical tube was used instead of a conical bore, the embouchure hole was
shaped in a rectangle and made larger, and the head joint curved towards the
embouchure hole in the shape of a parabola. The tone holes were also made
larger, requiring that padded keys cover them as they were now too large for
fingers to cover. It was also decided that metal tubing was more resonant than
wood and silver became a predominant metal used for flute making. In 1848, keys
A, G, F#, E, and D were made open for acoustics, and in 1850 the alternate Bb
thumb key was developed. This mode flute quickly caught on in France, England,
and the United States, and it is essentially the same model flute performed on
today with a few minor modifications. There are a few manufacturers that have
revised the acoustical properties of the flute, resulted in a few named scales
such as the Cooper and Armstrong scales. Recent research has focused on the
materials used for construction, the size and shape of the embouchure hole, and
manufacturing techniques. David Straubinger developed key pads that are much
more resistant, and they are an option in contemporary flutes. While there will
always be personal preferences in the types of materials and mechanism used on
each flute, it is the model based on Boehm that flutists will continue to use
as the flute develops.
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Further Reading:Powell, Ardal. The Flute. New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2002. The Yale Musical Instrument Series.
