The History of the Flute from Headjoint to Footjoint!

Transverse flute and Recorders

Flute history dates back to the Middle Ages (early 1500s) when the flute was a cylindrical piece of wood that sounded in D major. This transverse flute, known as a fife, was used most often militaristically. During the Renaissance (1600s), the flute continued to evolve and became more of a solo instrument than just military accompaniment. These flutes were in different pitches based on the vocal models (soprano, alto, tenor, bass). Each one had a two octave diatonic range beginning on either G or D and there were six holes spaced evenly across the instrument, so that fingers could easily reach them. While chromatic playing was possible on this flute, it was awkward due to cross fingerings with the open holes.

The early Baroque flute was similar to the Renaissance flute. They both had six holes that were spaced not according to acoustic principles, but to accommodate for finger span. As a result, the first and second octaves of the instrument tended to be flat and the F# required special fingerings in order to sound in tune. Hotteterre, a flutist and flute-maker whom I will discuss more in later blogs, decided to taper the bore in an attempt to correct the flute’s unstable pitch during the early 1700s. The head joint remained cylindrical while the body tapered to the foot, resulting in the instrument sounding less shrill. This was also the first time that flute was split into multiple pieces, allowing it to adjust to the varied tuning systems between geographic areas. The embouchure and finger holes were made smaller, and they could now be closer together because the tapering of the body adjusted for the pitch. Hotteterre added the first key to the flute: the closed D# key. It was added to cover the seventh hole which was after the E hole. This instrument still had a two octave range, but there were a few notes that could be forced over D3. Despite Hotteterre’s efforts, intonation continued to pose a problem for the flute. 

More chromatic keywork was added in an attempt to facilitate fingering and fix intonation. In 1760, the G#, Bb, and F keys were added to the already existing one-keyed flute. This removed most cross fingerings from the instrument. They continued to add the C foot-joint by 1774. The keys were not immediately accepted because keys at the time tended to stick and be unreliable, but it was soon realized that they effectively extended the range (D1-G3) and technical facility of the instrument. 

18th century transverse flutes

The 18^th century resulted in the eight-keyed flute known as the “Meyer system” flute. A c² key was added to control a hole near the B and C# holes in 1782, and four years later, Tromlitz, another prominent flutist and flute-maker to be discussed later, introduced the duplicate F-natural key which covered another hole made on the far side of the instrument that was controlled by a long lever. In the early 19^th century, there were developments the mechanism of keys that would later be transferred to wooden flutes such as tenons and sockets, lengthened springs, and the design of key mountings as silver posts, and developments with open keys in order to improve intonation. At this point, the eight-keyed flute was the standard instrument, but performers still played all models dating back to the one-keyed flute and on to flutes that had more than eight keys. Theobald Boehm’s innovations led towards the standardization of flutes that is nearly the same today. 

With Boehm’s model came the beginnings of the modern flute. He started a completely new fingering system where each semitone was drilled into the instrument at its acoustically correct position and then the mechanism was developed to facilitate those holes. His 1831 model re-spaced the A, E, F, F#, and G holes and keyed them. He also used double jointed ring keys so that more than one key can be pressed at once. The 1832 used exact measurements for the acoustic placement of the holes and incorporated open key systems for their full venting. Nolan’s system of open key rings and horizontal rods facilitated the mechanism, allowing fingers to be able to stay in their normal position between D1 and B3. While much of the old fingering system was retained, there were still necessary changes made to it that turned off seasoned performers from buying this model, but eventually slight mechanical changes were made that allowed the system to catch on in France and it was accepted by the Paris Conservatoire in 1838.

Boehm’s 1847 model improved various aspects of the flute to improve its acoustics. A cylindrical tube was used instead of a conical bore, the embouchure hole was shaped in a rectangle and made larger, and the head joint curved towards the embouchure hole in the shape of a parabola. The tone holes were also made larger, requiring that padded keys cover them as they were now too large for fingers to cover. It was also decided that metal tubing was more resonant than wood and silver became a predominant metal used for flute making. In 1848, keys A, G, F#, E, and D were made open for acoustics, and in 1850 the alternate Bb thumb key was developed. This mode flute quickly caught on in France, England, and the United States, and it is essentially the same model flute performed on today with a few minor modifications. There are a few manufacturers that have revised the acoustical properties of the flute, resulted in a few named scales such as the Cooper and Armstrong scales. Recent research has focused on the materials used for construction, the size and shape of the embouchure hole, and manufacturing techniques. David Straubinger developed key pads that are much more resistant, and they are an option in contemporary flutes. While there will always be personal preferences in the types of materials and mechanism used on each flute, it is the model based on Boehm that flutists will continue to use as the flute develops.

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Further Reading:

Powell, Ardal. The Flute. New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2002. The Yale Musical Instrument Series.